Compositions and methods for making (R)-reticuline and precursors thereof

ABSTRACT

Methods that may be used for the manufacture of the chemical compound (R)-Reticuline and synthesis precursors thereof. Compositions useful for the synthesis (R)-Reticuline and synthesis precursors are also provided.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 15/101,474, filed on Jun. 3, 2016 (now allowed), which is anational phase entry application of Patent Cooperation TreatyApplication No. PCT/CA2014/051164 filed Dec. 3, 2014, which claims thebenefit under 35 USC § 119(e) from U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 61/911,759, filed on Dec. 4, 2013 and U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 62/050,399, filed on Sep. 15, 2014, both all of whichare incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

INCORPORATION OF SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has beensubmitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety. The ASCII copy was created on Dec. 14, 2020,is named 16213037SeqList.txt and is 990,981 bytes in size.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The compositions and methods disclosed herein relate to secondarymetabolites and processes for manufacturing the same. More particularly,the present disclosure relates to (R)-Reticuline and certain precursorsthereof and methods and compositions for manufacturing (R)-Reticulineand such precursors.

BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE

The following paragraphs are provided by way of background to thepresent disclosure. They are not however an admission that anythingdiscussed therein is prior art or part of the knowledge of personsskilled in the art.

The biochemical pathways of living organisms are commonly classified asbeing either part of primary metabolism or part of secondary metabolism.Pathways that are part of a living cell's primary metabolism areinvolved in catabolism for energy production or in anabolism forbuilding block production for the cell. Secondary metabolites, on theother hand, are produced by living cells without having any obviousanabolic or catabolic function. It has however long been recognized thatmany secondary metabolites are useful in many respects, including forexample as therapeutic agents or natural deterrents.

The secondary metabolite (R)-Reticuline is produced by opium poppy(Papaver somniferum) and other members of the plant familiesPapaveraceae, Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae, and maybe used as a source material for producing the pharmaceutically activecompounds including morphine and codeine.

It is known that (R)-Reticuline in planta is produced from(S)-Reticuline. However it is not clear which genes and polypeptides areinvolved in catalyzing the conversion reaction(s).

Currently (R)-Reticuline may be harvested from natural sources, such asopium poppy. Alternatively (R)-Reticuline may be prepared synthetically.The existing manufacturing methods for (R)-Reticuline however sufferfrom low yields of (R)-Reticuline and/or are expensive. No methods existto biosynthetically make (R)-Reticuline from (S)-reticuline. Thereexists therefore in the art a need for improved methods for thesynthesis of (R)-Reticuline.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

The following paragraphs are intended to introduce the reader to themore detailed description that follows and not to define or limit theclaimed subject matter of the present disclosure.

The present disclosure relates to the secondary metabolite(R)-Reticuline and certain precursors thereof, as well as to methods ofmaking (R)-Reticuline and certain precursors thereof.

Accordingly, the present disclosure provides, in at least one aspect, atleast one embodiment of a method of making (R)-Reticuline or a precursorof (R)-Reticuline comprising:

(a) providing a benzylisoquinoline derivative;

(b) contacting the benzylisoquinoline derivative with an enzyme mixturecapable of converting the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor under conditions thatpermit the conversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor.

The present disclosure further provides in at least one aspect at leastone embodiment of a method of making (R)-Reticuline or a precursorthereof comprising:

(a) providing a benzylisoquinoline derivative;

(b) contacting the benzylisoquinoline derivative with an enzyme mixturecapable of converting the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor under conditions thatpermit the conversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor;

wherein the benzylisoquinoline derivative has the chemical formula (I):

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom, a        hydroxyl group or a methoxy group;    -   and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group; and    -   wherein the (R)-Reticuline precursor has the chemical formula        (II):

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom, a        hydroxyl group or a methoxy group;

and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group, with theproviso that chemical formula (II) excepts (R)-Reticuline.

In preferred embodiments, in the benzylisoquinoline derivative R₁ is amethoxy group; R₂ is a hydroxyl group; R₃ is a hydroxyl group; R₄ is amethoxy group and R₅ is a methyl group, providing the chemical formula:

also known as (S)-Reticuline.

In further preferred embodiments, the enzyme mixture comprises a firstpolypeptide capable of oxidizing the benzylisoquinoline derivative toform an oxidized benzylisoquinoline derivative having the chemicalformula (IV):

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom,        hydroxyl or methoxy group;    -   and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group; and

a second polypeptide capable of reducing the oxidized benzylisoquinolinederivative (IV) to form (R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticuline precursorhaving the chemical formula (II):

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom, a        hydroxyl group or a methoxy group;    -   and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group,        with the proviso that chemical formula (II) excepts        (R)-Reticuline.

In further preferred embodiments, the enzyme mixture comprises a firstpolypeptide capable of oxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form1,2-Dehydroreticuline and a second polypeptide capable of reducing1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form (R)-Reticuline.

In further preferred embodiments, the first polypeptide capable ofoxidizing the benzylisoquinoline derivative to form the oxidizedbenzylisoquinoline derivative is a cytochrome P450 and the secondpolypeptide capable of reducing the oxidized benzylisoquinolinederivative to form (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor is analdo-keto reductase (AKR).

In accordance with the present disclosure, the methods may be conductedin vitro or in vivo including, but not limited to, in plants, plant cellcultures, microorganisms, and cell-free systems.

Provided herein is further a method for preparing an enzyme selectedfrom the group consisting of CYP450 and AKR, or a mixture thereofcomprising:

-   -   (a) providing a chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising as        operably linked components:        -   (i) one or more nucleic acid sequences encoding one or more            of the polypeptides selected from the group consisting of            CYP450 and AKR; and        -   (ii) one or more nucleic acid sequences capable of            controlling expression in a host cell;    -   (b) introducing the chimeric nucleic acid sequence into a host        cell and growing the host cell to produce the polypeptide        selected from the group consisting of CYP450 and AKR; and    -   (c) recovering a polypeptide selected from the group consisting        of CYP450 and AKR from the host cell.

Provided herein still further is a method for preparing (R)-Reticulineor an (R)-Reticuline precursor having chemical formula (II) comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising as        operably linked components:        -   (i) a first nucleic acid sequence encoding a CYP450            polypeptide;        -   (ii) a second nucleic acid sequence encoding an AKR            polypeptide; and        -   (iii) one or more nucleic acid sequences capable of            controlling expression in a host cell;    -   (b) introducing the chimeric nucleic acid sequence into a host        cell and growing the host cell to produce CYP450 and AKR and to        produce (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor having        chemical formula (II); and    -   (c) recovering (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor        having chemical formula (II).

In preferred embodiments, the first and second nucleic acid sequencesare operably linked in order to produce a fusion polypeptide comprisingCYP450 and AKR.

There is further provided herein a method for preparing (R)-Reticulineor an (R)-Reticuline precursor having chemical formula (II) comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a first chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising        as operably linked components a first nucleic acid sequence        encoding a CYP450 polypeptide and a first nucleic acid sequence        controlling expression of the first nucleic acid sequence in the        cell;    -   (b) providing a second chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising        as operably linked components a second nucleic acid sequence        encoding an AKR polypeptide and a second nucleic acid sequence        controlling expression of the second nucleic acid sequence in        the cell;    -   (c) introducing the first and second chimeric nucleic acid        sequences into a host cell and growing the host cell to produce        CYP450 and AKR and to produce (R)-Reticuline or an        (R)-Reticuline precursor having chemical formula (II); and    -   (d) recovering (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor        having chemical formula (II).

The present disclosure further provides compositions for making(R)-Reticuline, including an enzyme mixture comprising a firstpolypeptide capable of oxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form1,2-Dehydroreticuline and a second polypeptide capable of reducing1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form (R)-Reticuline.

In preferred embodiments, the enzyme mixture comprises a firstpolypeptide capable of oxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form1,2-Dehydroreticuline and a second polypeptide capable of reducing1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form (R)-Reticuline.

In further preferred embodiments, the first polypeptide capable ofoxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form 1,2-Dehydroreticuline is a cytochromeP450 and the second polypeptide capable of reducing1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form (R)-Reticuline is an aldo-keto reductase(AKR).

The present invention still further provides compositions comprisingnucleic acid sequences encoding a first polypeptide capable of oxidizing(S)-Reticuline to form 1,2-Dehydroreticuline and a second polypeptidecapable of reducing 1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form (R)-Reticuline. Inpreferred embodiments the nucleic acid sequences are a nucleic acidsequence encoding a cytochrome P450 and an aldo-keto reductase, togethercapable of oxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form 1,2-Dehydroreticuline and asecond polypeptide capable of reducing 1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form(R)-Reticuline.

The present disclosure further includes methods of using nucleic acidsequences encoding AKR and/or CYP450, to detect the presence and absencethereof in samples, for example samples comprising plant cells, tomodulate the expression AKR and/or CYP450 in plant cells and othercells, and as a marker to evaluate segregation of a gene geneticallylinked AKR and/or CYP450 in a plant population.

In a further embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method ofdetecting the presence or absence of a nucleic acid sequence encodingAKR and/or CYP450 comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a sample suspected to comprise a nucleic acid        sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450; and    -   (b) analyzing the sample for the presence of a nucleotide        sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450.

In a further embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method formodulating expression of nucleic acid sequences in a cell naturallyexpressing AKR and/or CYP450 comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a cell naturally expressing AKR and/or CYP450;    -   (b) mutagenizing the cell;    -   (c) growing the cell to obtain a plurality of cells; and    -   (d) determining if the plurality of cells comprises a cell        comprising modulated levels of AKR and/or CYP450.

In yet a further embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method ofreducing the expression of AKR and/or CYP450 in a cell, comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a cell expressing AKR and/or CYP450; and    -   (b) silencing expression of AKR and/or CYP450 in the cell.

Other features and advantages of the present disclosure will becomeapparent from the following detailed description. It should beunderstood, however, that the detailed description, while indicatingpreferred implementations of the disclosure, are given by way ofillustration only, since various changes and modifications within thespirit and scope of the disclosure will become apparent to those ofskill in the art from the detailed description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The disclosure is in the hereinafter provided paragraphs described inrelation to its Figures. The Figures provided herein are provided forillustration purposes and are not intended to limit the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 1 depicts the synthesis pathway of various benzylisoquinolineprecursors to (R)-Reticuline, (R)-Reticuline precursors, morphine andsalutaridine. Included are the chemical structures of the showncompounds.

FIG. 2 depicts a synthesis pathway for the manufacture of (R)-Reticulinefrom (S)-Reticuline and synthesis intermediates thereof. Included arethe chemical structures of the synthesis intermediates and enzymescapable of catalyzing chemical conversion of the synthesisintermediates.

FIG. 3 depicts a series of HPLC traces of an embodiment of thedisclosure providing the conversion of (S)-Reticuline to (R)-Reticulineas described further in Example 1.

FIG. 4 depicts a series of HPLC traces of an embodiment of thedisclosure providing the conversion of (S)-Reticuline to1,2-Dehyrdoreticuline as described further in Example 2.

FIG. 5 depicts a series of HPLC traces of an embodiment of thedisclosure showing the conversion of 1,2-Dehyrdoreticuline to(R)-Reticuline as described further in Example 3.

FIG. 6 depicts a series of HPLC traces of an embodiment of thedisclosure showing the conversion of (S)—N-methylcoclaurine to(R)—N-methylcoclaurine as described further in Example 4.

FIGS. 7A-C depict results obtained relating to a gene silencingexperiment as further described in Example 5. Two different regions inthe REPI gene were targeted (FIG. 7A; FIG. 7C) and one region of theCOR1.3 gene (FIG. 7B). In each FIG. 7A-7C the different panels representthe following: (Panel A) Fragment (grey box) of the REPI or COR1.3 cDNAused to assemble the pTRV2 construct. The black box represents thecoding region, whereas the black lines are the flanking untranslatedregions. Arrows show the annealing sites of primers used for qRT-PCRanalysis. (Panel B) Ethidium bromide-stained agarose gels showing thedetection of the pTRV2 vector by RT-PCR using total RNA extracted fromindividual plants infiltrated with Agrobacterium tumefaciens harboringthe pTRV2-REPI-a, the pTRV2-REPI-5′, or the pTRV2-COR1.3 constructs, orthe pTRV2 empty vector control. PCR primers (TRV2-MCS) were designed toanneal to regions flanking the multiple cloning site (MCS) of pTRV2.(Panel C) Relative REPI or COR1.3 transcript levels in the stems androots of REPI-silenced (pTRV2-REPI-a; pRTV2-REPI-5′) or COR1.3-silenced(pRTV2-COR1.3) plants compared with controls (pTRV2). (Panel D) Totalion chromatograms showing the major alkaloid profiles of REPI-silenced(pTRV2-REPI-a; pRTV2-REPI-5′) or COR1.3 silenced (pRTV2-COR1.3) plantscompared with controls (pTRV2). (Panel E) Relative abundance of majorlatex alkaloids, and other alkaloids showing suppressed levels inREPI-silenced (pTRV2-REPI-a; pRTV2-REPI-5′) plants or COR1.3-silenced(pRTV2-COR1.3) plants compared with controls (pTRV2). (Panel F) Ratio of(S)-reticuline to (R)-reticuline in REPI-silenced (pTRV2-REPI-a;pRTV2-REPI-5′) plants or COR1.3-silenced (pRTV2-COR1.3) plants comparedwith controls (pTRV2). Asterisks indicate significant differencesdetermined using an unpaired, two-tailed Student t test (p<0.05). Barsrepresent the mean ± standard deviation of values obtained from 3technical replicates for each of 6 individually infiltrated plants.

FIGS. 8A-B depict the results obtained when evaluating the activity ofAKR polypeptide in the presence of reducing and oxidizing agents, asfurther described in Example 6. FIG. 8A shows the activity of the1,2-Dehydroreticuline reductase (PsDRR) component of Papaver somniferumreticuline epimerase (REPI). In the presence of NADH or NADPH, PsDRRconverts 1,2-Dehydroreticuline [1] to (R)-reticuline [2] (FIG. 8A, PanelA). In the presence of NAD+ or NADP+, PsDRR converts (R)-reticuline [2]to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline [1] (FIG. 8A, Panel B). FIG. 8B shows theactivity of 1,2-Dehydroreticuline reductase (PrDRR) from Papaver rhoeas.In the presence of NADH or NADPH, PrDRR converts 1,2-dehydroreticuline[1] to (R)-reticuline [2] (FIG. 8B, Panel A). In the presence of NAD+ orNADP+, PrDRR converts (R)-reticuline [2] to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline [1](FIG. 8B, Panel B).

FIG. 9 depicts the results obtained when evaluating the pH dependence ofCYP450 and AKR polypeptide as further described in Example 7. Shown arethe results obtained using Papaver somniferum CYP450 (PsDRS) and AKR inthe presence of NADPH (PsDRS forward) and in the presence of NADP⁺(PsDRS reverse) (Panel A). Further shown are the results obtained usingPapaver rhoeas CYP450 (PrDRS) and AKR in the presence of NADPH (PrDRSforward) and in the presence of NADP⁺ (PrDRS reverse) (Panel B).

FIG. 10 depicts the co-suppression of REPI and COR transcript levels inopium poppy plants subjected to virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) asfurther described in Example 8. Plants in which the silencing of COR istargeted (pTRV2-COR1.3) showed significant suppression of COR (FIG. 10—bottom panel), and additionally showed suppression of REPI (FIG. 10—top panel). Plants in which the silencing of REPI was targeted using aconserved region found in both REPI and COR (pTRV2-REP1a) also showedsignificant suppression of COR (FIG. 10 —bottom panel) and REPI (FIG. 10—top panel). Plants in which the silencing of REPI was targeted using aunique region of REPI (pTRV2-REP1b), a region not also found in COR, didnot show the co-silencing of COR (FIG. 10 —bottom panel). pTRV2 is theempty vector control. Asterisks indicate values that are significantlydifferent compared with controls using and unpaired, Student's t-test(P<0.05). Error bars represent the mean±standard deviation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE

Various compositions and methods will be described below to provide anexample of an embodiment of each claimed subject matter. No embodimentdescribed below limits any claimed subject matter and any claimedsubject matter may cover methods, processes, compositions or systemsthat differ from those described below. The claimed subject matter isnot limited to compositions or methods having all of the features of anyone composition, method, system or process described below or tofeatures common to multiple or all of the compositions, systems ormethods described below. It is possible that a composition, system,method or process described below is not an embodiment of any claimedsubject matter. Any subject matter disclosed in a composition, system,method or process described below that is not claimed in this documentmay be the subject matter of another protective instrument, for example,a continuing patent application, and the applicants, inventors or ownersdo not intend to abandon, disclaim or dedicate to the public any suchsubject matter by its disclosure in this document.

It should be noted that terms of degree such as “substantially”,“essentially” “about” and “approximately” as used herein mean areasonable amount of deviation of the modified term such that the endresult is not significantly changed. These terms of degree should beconstrued as including a deviation of the modified term if thisdeviation would not negate the meaning of the term it modifies.

As used herein, the wording “and/or” is intended to represent aninclusive-or. That is, “X and/or Y” is intended to mean X or Y or both,for example. As a further example, “X, Y, and/or Z” is intended to meanX or Y or Z or any combination thereof.

All publications, patents and patent applications are hereinincorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as ifeach individual publication.

As hereinbefore mentioned, the present disclosure relates to thesecondary metabolite (R)-Reticuline and precursors thereof, as well asto methods of making (R)-Reticuline and precursors thereof. The currentdisclosure further relates to certain enzymes capable of catalyzingreactions resulting in the conversion of (S)-Reticuline to form(R)-Reticuline. The herein provided methods represent a novel andefficient means of manufacturing (R)-Reticuline and precursors thereof.The methods provided herein do not rely on chemical synthesis and may beconducted at commercial scale. To the best of the inventors' knowledge,the current disclosure provides for the first time a methodology tomanufacture (R)-Reticuline and precursors thereof using living cells notnormally capable of synthesizing (R)-Reticuline and precursors thereof.Such cells may be used as a source whence (R)-Reticuline and precursorsthereof may economically be extracted. (R)-Reticuline and precursorsthereof produced in accordance with the present disclosure are usefulinter alia in the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions includingmorphine and codeine.

Accordingly, the present disclosure provides, in at least one aspect, atleast one embodiment of a method of making (R)-Reticuline or a precursorthereof comprising:

(a) providing a benzylisoquinoline derivative;

(b) contacting the benzylisoquinoline derivative with an enzyme mixturecapable of converting the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor under conditions thatpermit the conversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor.

The present disclosure further provides in at least one aspect at leastone embodiment of a method of making (R)-Reticuline or a precursor of(R)-Reticuline comprising:

(a) providing a benzylisoquinoline derivative;

(b) contacting the benzylisoquinoline derivative with an enzyme mixturecapable of converting the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor under conditions thatpermit the conversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor;

-   -   wherein the benzylisoquinoline derivative has the chemical        formula (I):

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom, a        hydroxyl group or a methoxy group;    -   and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group; and    -   wherein the (R)-Reticuline precursor has the chemical formula:

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom, a        hydroxyl group or a methoxy group;    -   and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group.

Definitions

The term “benzylisoquinoline derivative” as used herein refers tocompounds having the chemical formula (VII):

wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ are each independently or simultaneously ahydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, an alkyl group (for exampleC₁-C₁₀-alkyl) or an alkoxy group (for example C₁-C₁₀-alkoxy), andwherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group (for exampleC₁-C₁₀-alkyl).

The term “(R)-Reticuline precursor”, as used herein, refers to acompound having the chemical formula (VIII):

wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ are each independently or simultaneously ahydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, an alkyl group (for exampleC₁-C₁₀-alkyl) or an alkoxy group (for example C₁-C₁₀-alkoxy), andwherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group (for exampleC₁-C₁₀-alkyl), with the proviso that chemical formula (VIII) excepts(R)-Reticuline, i.e. specifically excepted from the term (R)-Reticulineprecursor as used herein is the chemical compound wherein R₁ is amethoxy group; R₂ is a hydroxyl group, R₃ is a hydroxyl group, R₄ is amethoxy group and R₅ is a methyl group.

The term “(S)-Reticuline” as used herein refers to the (S)-enantiomer ofReticuline and a chemical compound having the chemical structure (III):

The term “oxidized benzylisoquinoline derivative” refers to a compoundhaving the chemical formula (IX):

wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ are each independently or simultaneously ahydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, an alkyl group (for exampleC₁-C₁₀-alkyl) or an alkoxy group (for example C₁-C₁₀-alkoxy), andwherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group (for exampleC₁-C₁₀-alkyl).

The term “(R)-Reticuline” as used herein refers to the (R)-enantiomer ofReticuline and a chemical compound having the chemical structure (V):

The term “1,2-Dehydroreticuline” as used herein refers to a chemicalcompound having the chemical structure (VI):

The terms “(R)-Reticuline pathway” or “(R)-Reticuline synthesispathway”, as may be used interchangeably herein, refer to the metabolicpathway for the synthesis of (R)-Reticuline depicted in FIG. 1 . When afirst chemical compound within the (R)-Reticuline pathway is referencedas “ ” of a second chemical compound in the pathway, it is meant hereinthat synthesis of the first chemical compound precedes synthesis of thesecond chemical compound. Conversely, when a first chemical compound isreferenced as “downstream” from a second chemical compound in the(R)-Reticuline pathway, it is meant herein that synthesis of the secondchemical compound precedes synthesis of the first chemical compound.

The term “enzyme mixture” as used herein refers to a mixture comprisingone or two or more enzymes. It should be noted that in mixturescontaining two or more enzymes the enzymes may be independentlybiologically active without interaction or coordination to form themixture. In one embodiment, the enzymes contained in the enzyme mixturemay associate or interact as independent non-contiguous polypeptidechains. In another embodiment the enzyme mixture may be prepared as afusion polypeptide between two polypeptides.

The terms “Cytochrome P450”, “CYP450” or “P450”, which may be usedinterchangeably herein, refer to any and all enzymes comprising asequence of amino acid residues which is (i) substantially identical tothe amino acid sequences constituting any CYP450 polypeptide set forthherein, including, for example, SEQ. ID NO: 219 to SEQ. ID NO: 321; SEQ.ID NO: 325; and SEQ. ID NO: 338, or (ii) encoded by a nucleic acidsequence capable of hybridizing under at least moderately stringentconditions to any nucleic acid sequence encoding any CYP450 polypeptideset forth herein, but for the use of synonymous codons.

The terms “aldo-keto reductase” or “AKR”, which may be usedinterchangeably herein, in reference to any and all enzymes comprising asequence of amino acid residues which is (i) substantially identical tothe amino acid sequences constituting any AKR polypeptide set forthherein, including, for example, SEQ. ID NO: 59 to SEQ. ID NO: 115; SEQ.ID NO: 327; SEQ. ID NO: 329; SEQ. ID NO: 330; and SEQ. ID NO: 340, or(ii) encoded by a nucleic acid sequence capable of hybridizing under atleast moderately stringent conditions to any nucleic acid sequenceencoding any AKR polypeptide set forth herein, but for the use ofsynonymous codons.

The term “nucleic acid sequence” as used herein refers to a sequence ofnucleoside or nucleotide monomers consisting of naturally occurringbases, sugars and intersugar (backbone) linkages. The term also includesmodified or substituted sequences comprising non-naturally occurringmonomers or portions thereof. The nucleic acid sequences of the presentdisclosure may be deoxyribonucleic acid sequences (DNA) or ribonucleicacid sequences (RNA) and may include naturally occurring bases includingadenine, guanine, cytosine, thymidine and uracil. The sequences may alsocontain modified bases. Examples of such modified bases include aza anddeaza adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymidine and uracil, and xanthine andhypoxanthine.

The herein interchangeably used terms “nucleic acid sequence encodingCYP450” and “nucleic acid sequence encoding a CYP450 polypeptide”, referto any and all nucleic acid sequences encoding a CYP450 polypeptide,including, for example, SEQ. ID NO: 116 to SEQ. ID NO: 218; SEQ. ID NO:324; and SEQ. ID NO: 337. Nucleic acid sequences encoding a CYP450polypeptide further include any and all nucleic acid sequences which (i)encode polypeptides that are substantially identical to the CYP450polypeptide sequences set forth herein; or (ii) hybridize to any CYP450nucleic acid sequences set forth herein under at least moderatelystringent hybridization conditions or which would hybridize theretounder at least moderately stringent conditions but for the use ofsynonymous codons.

The herein interchangeably used terms “nucleic acid sequence encodingAKR” and “nucleic acid sequence encoding an AKR polypeptide”, refer toany and all nucleic acid sequences encoding an AKR polypeptide,including, for example, SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 58; SEQ ID NO: 326; SEQ ID NO:328; SEQ ID NO: 339; and SEQ ID NO: 341. Nucleic acid sequences encodingan AKR polypeptide further include any and all nucleic acid sequenceswhich (i) encode polypeptides that are substantially identical to theAKR polypeptide sequences set forth herein; or (ii) hybridize to any AKRnucleic acid sequences set forth herein under at least moderatelystringent hybridization conditions or which would hybridize theretounder at least moderately stringent conditions but for the use ofsynonymous codons.

By the term “substantially identical” it is meant that two polypeptidesequences preferably are at least 70% identical, and more preferably areat least 85% identical and most preferably at least 95% identical, forexample 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identical. In order to determine thepercentage of identity between two polypeptide sequences the amino acidsequences of such two sequences are aligned, using for example thealignment method of Needleman and Wunsch (J. Mol. Biol., 1970, 48: 443),as revised by Smith and Waterman (Adv. Appl. Math., 1981, 2: 482) sothat the highest order match is obtained between the two sequences andthe number of identical amino acids is determined between the twosequences. Methods to calculate the percentage identity between twoamino acid sequences are generally art recognized and include, forexample, those described by Carillo and Lipton (SIAM J. Applied Math.,1988, 48:1073) and those described in Computational Molecular Biology,Lesk, e.d. Oxford University Press, New York, 1988, Biocomputing:Informatics and Genomics Projects. Generally, computer programs will beemployed for such calculations. Computer programs that may be used inthis regard include, but are not limited to, GCG (Devereux et al.,Nucleic Acids Res., 1984, 12: 387) BLASTP, BLASTN and FASTA (Altschul etal., J. Molec. Biol., 1990:215:403). A particularly preferred method fordetermining the percentage identity between two polypeptides involvesthe Clustal W algorithm (Thompson, J D, Higgines, D G and Gibson T J,1994, Nucleic Acid Res 22(22): 4673-4680 together with the BLOSUM 62scoring matrix (Henikoff S & Henikoff, J G, 1992, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA 89: 10915-10919 using a gap opening penalty of 10 and a gapextension penalty of 0.1, so that the highest order match obtainedbetween two sequences wherein at least 50% of the total length of one ofthe two sequences is involved in the alignment.

By “at least moderately stringent hybridization conditions” it is meantthat conditions are selected which promote selective hybridizationbetween two complementary nucleic acid molecules in solution.Hybridization may occur to all or a portion of a nucleic acid sequencemolecule. The hybridizing portion is typically at least 15 (e.g. 20, 25,30, 40 or 50) nucleotides in length. Those skilled in the art willrecognize that the stability of a nucleic acid duplex, or hybrids, isdetermined by the Tm, which in sodium containing buffers is a functionof the sodium ion concentration and temperature (Tm=81.5° C.-16.6 (Log10 [Na+])+0.41 (% (G+C)−600/l), or similar equation). Accordingly, theparameters in the wash conditions that determine hybrid stability aresodium ion concentration and temperature. In order to identify moleculesthat are similar, but not identical, to a known nucleic acid molecule a1% mismatch may be assumed to result in about a 1° C. decrease in Tm,for example if nucleic acid molecules are sought that have a >95%identity, the final wash temperature will be reduced by about 5° C.Based on these considerations those skilled in the art will be able toreadily select appropriate hybridization conditions. In preferredembodiments, stringent hybridization conditions are selected. By way ofexample the following conditions may be employed to achieve stringenthybridization: hybridization at 5× sodium chloride/sodium citrate(SSC)/5×Denhardt's solution/1.0% SDS at Tm (based on the aboveequation)−5° C., followed by a wash of 0.2×SSC/0.1% SDS at 60° C.Moderately stringent hybridization conditions include a washing step in3×SSC at 42° C. It is understood however that equivalent stringenciesmay be achieved using alternative buffers, salts and temperatures.Additional guidance regarding hybridization conditions may be found in:Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, N.Y., 1989,6.3.1.-6.3.6 and in: Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, a LaboratoryManual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989, Vol. 3.

The term “chimeric” as used herein in the context of nucleic acidsequences refers to at least two linked nucleic acid sequences which arenot naturally linked. Chimeric nucleic acid sequences include linkednucleic acid sequences of different natural origins. For example anucleic acid sequence constituting a yeast promoter linked to a nucleicacid sequence encoding a COR protein is considered chimeric. Chimericnucleic acid sequences also may comprise nucleic acid sequences of thesame natural origin, provided they are not naturally linked. For examplea nucleic acid sequence constituting a promoter obtained from aparticular cell-type may be linked to a nucleic acid sequence encoding apolypeptide obtained from that same cell-type, but not normally linkedto the nucleic acid sequence constituting the promoter. Chimeric nucleicacid sequences also include nucleic acid sequences comprising anynaturally occurring nucleic acid sequence linked to any non-naturallyoccurring nucleic acid sequence.

The terms “substantially pure” and “isolated”, as may be usedinterchangeably herein describe a compound, e.g., a pathway synthesisintermediate or a polypeptide, which has been separated from componentsthat naturally accompany it. Typically, a compound is substantially purewhen at least 60%, more preferably at least 75%, more preferably atleast 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, or 98%, and most preferably at least 99% ofthe total material (by volume, by wet or dry weight, or by mole percentor mole fraction) in a sample is the compound of interest. Purity can bemeasured by any appropriate method, e.g., in the case of polypeptides,by chromatography, gel electrophoresis or HPLC analysis.

The term “recovered” as used herein in association with an enzyme orprotein refers to a more or less pure form of the enzyme or protein.

The term “in vivo” as used herein to describe methods of making(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor refers to contacting abenzylisoquinoline derivative with an enzyme capable of catalyzingconversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative within a living cell,including, for example, a microbial cell or a plant cell, to form(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor.

The term “in vitro” as used herein to describe methods of making(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor refers to contacting abenzylisoquinoline derivative with an enzyme capable of catalyzingconversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative in an environmentoutside a living cell, including, without limitation, for example, in amicrowell plate, a tube, a flask, a beaker, a tank, a reactor and thelike, to form (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor.

General Implementation

Synthesis of (R)-Reticuline and (R)-Reticuline Precursors

The present disclosure provides in at least one aspect at least oneembodiment of making (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursorcomprising:

(a) providing a benzylisoquinoline derivative;

(b) contacting the benzylisoquinoline derivative with an enzyme mixturecapable of converting the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor under conditions thatpermit the conversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative to(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor;

-   -   wherein the benzylisoquinoline derivative has the chemical        formula (I):

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom, a        hydroxyl group or a methoxy group;    -   and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group; and    -   wherein the (R)-Reticuline precursor has the chemical formula        (II):

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent a hydrogen atom, a        hydroxyl group or a methoxy group;

and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group, with theproviso that chemical formula (II) excepts (R)-Reticuline.

In a preferred embodiment, the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I) is aderivative wherein R₁ is methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group, R₃ is ahydrogen atom or a hydroxyl group, R₄ is a hydroxyl group or a methoxygroup, and R₅ is a hydrogen atom or methyl group.

In a further preferred embodiment, the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I)is a derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group,R₃ is a hydrogen atom, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ is a hydrogen atom.This compound is also known as (S)-Coclaurine (see: FIG. 1 ).

In a further preferred embodiment, the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I)is a derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group,R₃ is a hydrogen atom, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ is a methyl group.This compound is also known as (S)—N-methyl-coclaurine (see: FIG. 1 ).

In a further preferred embodiment, the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I)is a derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group,R₃ is a hydroxyl group, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ is a methyl group.This compound is also known as (S)-3′-hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine (see:FIG. 1 ).

In a further preferred embodiment, the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I)is a derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group,R₃ is a hydroxyl group, R₄ is a methoxy group and R₅ is a methyl group.This compound is also known as (S)-Reticuline (see: FIG. 1 ; compound(III)).

In a further preferred embodiment, the (R)-Reticuline derivative (II) isa derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group, R₃is a hydrogen atom or a hydroxyl group, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ isa methyl group.

In a further preferred embodiment, the (R)-Reticuline derivative (II) isa derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group, R₃is a hydrogen atom, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ is a methyl group.This compound is also known as (R)—N-Methylcoclaurine (see: FIG. 1 ).

In a further preferred embodiment the (R)-Reticuline derivative (II) isa derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group, R₃is a hydroxyl group, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ is a methyl group.This compound is also known as (R)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine (see:FIG. 1 ).

In a further preferred embodiment, the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I)is a derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group,R₃ is a hydrogen atom, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ is a methyl group;and the (R)-Reticuline derivative (II) is a derivative wherein R₁ is amethoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group, R₃ is a hydrogen atom, R₄ is ahydroxyl group and R₅ is a methyl group.

In a further preferred embodiment, the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I)is a derivative wherein R₁ is a methoxy group, R₂ is a hydroxyl group,R₃ is a hydroxyl group, R₄ is a hydroxyl group and R₅ is a methyl group;and (R)-Reticuline derivative (II) is a derivative wherein R₁ is methoxygroup, R₂ is a hydroxyl group, R₃ is a hydroxyl group, R₄ is a hydroxylgroup and R₅ is a methyl group.

In a preferred embodiment of the disclosure, there is provided a methodof making (R)-Reticuline comprising:

(a) providing (S)-Reticuline; and

(b) contacting (S)-Reticuline with an enzyme mixture capable ofconverting (S)-Reticuline to (R)-Reticuline under conditions that permitthe conversion of (S)-Reticuline to (R)-Reticuline.

In preferred embodiments, the enzyme mixture comprises a firstpolypeptide capable of oxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form1,2-Dehydroreticuline and a second polypeptide capable of reducing1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form (R)-Reticuline (see: FIG. 2 ).

In preferred embodiments, the enzyme mixture comprises a firstpolypeptide capable of oxidizing the benzylisoquinoline derivative (I)to form an oxidized benzylisoquinoline derivative having the chemicalformula (IV):

wherein, in preferred embodiments, R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represent ahydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group or a methoxy group; and wherein, inpreferred embodiments, R₅ represents a hydrogen atom or a methyl group;and a second polypeptide capable of reducing the oxidizedbenzylisoquinoline derivative having the chemical formula (IV) to form(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline derivative having chemical formula(II) wherein R₁, R₂, R₃ and R₄ each represents a hydrogen atom, ahydroxyl group or a methoxy group; and wherein R₅ represents a hydrogenatom or a methyl group, with the proviso that chemical formula (II)excepts (R)-Reticuline.

In preferred embodiments, the first polypeptide capable of oxidizing thebenzylisoquinoline derivative (I) to form the oxidizedbenzylisoquinoline derivative (IV) is a cytochrome P450 and the secondpolypeptide capable of reducing oxidized benzylisoquinoline derivativeto form (R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticuline derivative is an aldo-ketoreductase (AKR). In particularly preferred embodiments, the AKRpolypeptides are obtained from or obtainable from P. somniferum, P.bracteatum and P. rhoeas.

In certain embodiments, the first and second polypeptide are provided inthe form of two separate polypeptides, i.e. polypeptides that are notconnected by covalent chemical bonds. In certain preferred embodiments,the first and second polypeptide are prepared as a fusion polypeptidecomprising a first portion encoding a CYP450 polypeptide and a secondportion encoding an AKR polypeptide. Such fusion polypeptide may beprepared recombinantly or it may be a naturally occurring fusionpolypeptide may be used, such as the Papaver somniferum polypeptide setforth in SEQ. ID NO: 323.

Examples of a CYP450 polypeptide that may be used in accordance with thepresent disclosure include the polypeptides set forth in. SEQ. ID NO:219 to SEQ. ID NO: 321; SEQ. ID NO: 325; and SEQ. ID NO: 338. Examplesof AKR polypeptides that may be used in accordance with the presentdisclosure include the polypeptides set forth in SEQ. ID NO: 59 to SEQ.ID NO: 115; SEQ. ID NO: 327; SEQ. ID NO: 329; SEQ. ID NO: 330: and SEQ.ID NO: 340.

The foregoing reactions are performed under conditions permitting theconversion of the benzylisoquinoline precursor to (R)-Reticuline or a(R)-Reticuline precursor. The conditions include in vivo or in vitroconditions, as hereinafter further detailed. The conditions furthertypically include the presence of water and buffering agents. Furthertypically included are a reducing agent in order to permit a reductionreaction resulting in the conversion of the oxidized benzylisoquinolineprecursor to (R)-Reticuline or to a (R)-Reticuline precursor. Thereducing agent may be nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and inother embodiments, the reducing agent is nicotinamide adeninedinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). Further typically included in thereaction is a reductase capable of reducing the enzyme converting thebenzylisoquinoline derivative to the oxidized benzylisoquinoline and areducing agent. In preferred embodiments, the reductase is a cytochromeP450 reductase, such as for example the opium poppy cytochrome P450reductase, capable of reducing CYP450, and the reducing agent is NADH,or more preferably, NADPH. It is further noted that the reactions may beconducted at various pH's, e.g. at approximately pH 3, pH 4, pH 5, pH 6,pH 7, pH 8, pH, 9 or pH 10. It will be clear to those of skill in theart that an optimal pH may be identified for a reaction by conductingthe reaction at a range of different pH's, and evaluating the reactionrate, as illustrated in Example 7 hereof. The optimal pH may varydepending on, for example, the substrate and enzyme selected inaccordance herewith. Thus, by way of example only, Example 7 documentsan optimal pH of approximately pH 8 for the conversion of (S)-Reticulineto 1,2-Dehydroreticuline, an optimal pH of approximately pH 7 for theconversion of 1,2-Dehydroreticuline to (R)-Reticuline, and an optimal pHof approximately pH 9 for the conversion of (R)-Reticuline to1,2-Dehydroreticuline.

It is noted that in accordance herewith, depending on the reactionconditions selected, the reaction involving the conversion of1,2-Dehydroreticuline to (R)-Reticuline may be reversed, or partiallyreversed. Thus, as documented in Example 6, (R)-Reticuline may beconverted to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline. Accordingly, the present disclosurefurther provides a method of making 1,2-Dehydroreticuline comprising:

(a) providing (R)-Reticuline; and

(b) contacting (R)-Reticuline with an AKR polypeptide capable ofconverting (R)-Reticuline to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline under conditions thatpermit the conversion of (R)-Reticuline to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline. TheAKR polypeptides that may be used to conduct the foregoing reactioninclude any polypeptide set forth in SEQ. ID NO: 59 to SEQ. ID NO: 115;SEQ. ID NO: 327; SEQ. ID NO: 329; SEQ. ID NO: 330; and SEQ. ID NO: 340.Reaction conditions permitting the conversion include the presence inthe reaction mixture of an oxidizing agent, preferably NAD⁺ or NADP⁺. Asnoted above the pH for the reaction may be optimized. The reversibilityof the foregoing reaction is further illustrated in FIG. 2

In preferred embodiments, the first polypeptide capable of oxidizing thebenzylisoquinoline derivative to form the oxidized benzylisoquinolinederivative is a cytochrome P450 and the second polypeptide capable ofreducing the oxidized benzylisoquinoline derivative to form(R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticuline derivative is an aldo-keto reductase(AKR). In particularly preferred embodiments, the AKR is obtained fromor obtainable from P. somniferum, P. bracteatum and P. rhoeas.

In certain embodiments, the first and second polypeptide are provided inthe form of two separate polypeptides, i.e. polypeptides that are notconnected by covalent chemical bonds. In certain preferred embodiments,the first and second polypeptide are prepared as a fusion polypeptidecomprising a first portion encoding a CYP450 polypeptide and a secondportion encoding an AKR polypeptide. Such fusion polypeptide may beprepared recombinantly, or it may be a naturally occurring fusionpolypeptide may be used, such as the Papaver somniferum polypeptide setforth in SEQ. ID NO: 323.

Examples of a CYP450 polypeptide that may be used in accordance with thepresent disclosure include CYP450 polypeptides obtainable from variousPapaver species, including, Papaver somniferum, Papaver rhoeas andPapaver bracteatum; Argemone species, including Argemone mexicana;Berberis species, including Berberis thunbergii; Corydalis species,including Corydalis chelantifolia; Chelidonium species, including,Chelidonium majus; Cissampelos species, including Cissampelos mucronata;Cocculus species, including Cocculus trilobus; Corydalis species,including Corydalis chelantifolia; Glaucium species, including Glauciumflavum; Hydrastis species, including Hydrastis canadensis; Jeffersoniaspecies, including Jeffersonia diphylla; Mahonia species, includingMahonia aquifolium; Menispermum species, including Menispermumcanadense; Nandina species, including Nandina domestica; Nigellaspecies, including Nigella sativa; Sanguinaria species, includingSanguinaria canadensis; Styplophorum species, Stylophorum diphyllum,Thalictrum species, including Thalictrum flavum; Tinospora species,including Tinospora cordifolia; and Xanthoriza species, includingXanthoriza simplicissima. The foregoing specifically include thepolypeptides from the aforementioned species set forth herein in SEQ. IDNO: 219 to SEQ. ID NO: 321; SEQ. ID NO: 325; and SEQ. ID NO: 338.Examples of a AKR polypeptide that may be used in accordance with thepresent disclosure include AKR polypeptides obtainable from variousPapaver species, including, Papaver somniferum, Papaver rhoeas andPapaver bracteatum; Argemone species, including Argemone mexicana;Berberis species, including Berberis thunbergii; Corydalis species,including Corydalis chelantifolia; Chelidonium species, including,Chelidonium majus; Cissampelos species, including Cissampelos mucronata;Cocculus species, including Cocculus trilobus; Corydalis species,including Corydalis chelantifolia; Glaucium species, including Glauciumflavum; Hydrastis species, including Hydrastis canadensis; Jeffersoniaspecies, including Jeffersonia diphylla; Mahonia species, includingMahonia aquifolium; Menispermum species, including Menispermumcanadense; Nandina species, including Nandina domestica; Nigellaspecies, including Nigella sativa; Sanguinaria species, includingSanguinaria canadensis; Styplophorum species, Stylophorum diphyllum,Thalictrum species, including Thalictrum flavum; Tinospora species,including Tinospora cordifolia; and Xanthoriza species, includingXanthoriza simplicissima. The foregoing specifically include thepolypeptides from the aforementioned species set forth herein in SEQ. IDNO: 59 to SEQ. ID NO: 115; SEQ. ID NO: 327; SEQ. ID NO: 329; SEQ. ID NO:330; and SEQ. ID NO: 340.

The foregoing reactions are performed under conditions permitting theconversion of the benzylisoquinoline precursor to (R)-Reticuline or a(R)-Reticuline precursor. The conditions include in vivo or in vitroconditions, as hereinafter further detailed. The conditions furthertypically include the presence of water and buffering agents. Furthertypically included are a reducing agent in order to permit a reductionreaction resulting in the conversion of the oxidized benzylisoquinolineprecursor to (R)-Reticuline or to a (R)-Reticuline precursor. Thereducing agent may be nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and inother embodiments, the reducing agent is nicotinamide adeninedinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). Further typically included in thereaction is a reductase capable of reducing the enzyme converting thebenzylisoquinoline derivative to the oxidized benzylisoquinoline and areducing agent. In preferred embodiments, the reductase is a cytochromeP450 reductase capable of reducing CYP450, and the reducing agent isNADH, or more preferably, NADPH.

In Vitro Synthesis of (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline Derivatives

In accordance with certain aspects of the present disclosure, abenzylisoquinoline derivative is brought in contact with catalyticquantities of the enzymes CYP450 and AKR under reaction conditionspermitting an enzyme catalyzed chemical conversion of thebenzylisoquinoline derivative under in vitro reaction conditions. Undersuch in vitro reaction conditions the initial reaction constituents areprovided in more or less pure form and are mixed under conditions thatpermit the requisite chemical reactions to substantially proceed.Substantially pure forms of the initial benzylisoquinoline derivativemay be purchased. (S)-Reticuline, for example, may be purchased (e.g.from Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc.) as a substantially pure chemicalcompound, chemically synthesized from precursor compounds, or isolatedfrom natural sources including Papaver somniferum and other members ofthe Papaveraceae, Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae or Moraceaefamilies of plants comprising such compounds as desired. SuitablePapaveraceae members include, but are not limited to, species belongingto the genus Papaver, Corydalis; Chelidonium; and Romeria. Such speciesmay be able to make (S)-Reticuline, including, but not limited to, plantspecies selected from the species Chelidonium majus; Corydalis bulbosa;Corydalis cava; Corydalis ochotenis; Corydalis ophiocarpa; Corydalisplatycarpa; Corydalis tuberosa; Papaver armeniacum; Papaver Bracteatum;Papaver cylindricum; Papaver decaisnei; Papaver fugax; Papaveroreophyllum; Papaver orientale; Papaver paeonifolium; Papaver persicum;Papaver pseudo-orientale; Papaver rhoeas; Papaver rhopalothece; Papaversetigerum; Papaver somniferum; Papaver tauricolum; Papavertriniaefolium; and Romeria carica. Chemical synthesis of (S)-Reticulinemay be performed using standard methods as described, for example, in S.Teitel and A. Bross, Journal of Heterocyclic Chemistry 5, 825-829, 1968.

In accordance herewith, more or less pure forms of the enzymes may beisolated from natural sources, including, but not limited to, Papaversomniferum, Papaver bracteatum and Papaver rhoeas, or they may beprepared recombinantly, or synthetically. Thus, provided herein isfurther a method for preparing an enzyme selected from the groupconsisting of CYP450 and AKR, or a mixture thereof comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising as        operably linked components:        -   (i) one or both nucleic acid sequences encoding one or more            of the polypeptides selected from the group consisting of            CYP450 and AKR; and        -   (ii) one or more nucleic acid sequences capable of            controlling expression in a host cell;    -   (b) introducing the chimeric nucleic acid sequence into a host        cell and growing the host cell to produce the polypeptide        selected from the group consisting of CYP450 and AKR; and    -   (c) recovering a polypeptide selected from the group consisting        of CYP450 and AKR or from the host cell.

The nucleic acid sequence may be obtained from any natural source, e.g.a plant source, containing such sequences. Preferred plant sourcesinclude Papaver species, including, Papaver somniferum, Papaver rhoeasand Papaver bracteatum; Argemone species, including Argemone mexicana;Berberis species, including Berberis thunbergii; Corydalis species,including Corydalis chelantifoli; Chelidonium species, including,Chelidonium majus; Cissampelos species, including Cissampelos mucronata;Cocculus species, including Cocculus trilobus; Corydalis species,including Corydalis chelantifolia; Glaucium species, including Glauciumflavum; Hydrastis species, including Hydrastis canadensis; Jeffersoniaspecies, including Jeffersonia diphylla; Mahonia species, includingMahonia aquifolium; Menispermum species, including Menispermumcanadense; Nandina species, including Nandina domestica; Nigellaspecies, including Nigella sativa; Sanguinaria species, includingSanguinaria canadensis; Styplophorum species, Stylophorum diphyllum,Thalictrum species, including Thalictrum flavum; Tinospora species,including Tinospora cordifolia; and Xantboriza species, includingXanthoriza simplicissima. With respect to CYP450 the nucleic acidsequences obtainable or obtained from the aforementioned plant speciesinclude the nucleic acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 116 to 218;SEQ ID NO: 324; and SEQ ID NO: 337. With respect to AKR the nucleic acidsequences obtainable or obtained from the aforementioned plant speciesinclude the nucleic acid sequence set forth herein as SEQ ID NO: 1 toSEQ ID NO: 58; SEQ ID NO: 326; SEQ ID NO: 328; SEQ ID NO: 339; and SEQID NO: 341. In further preferred embodiments, a nucleic acid sequenceencoding a natural fusion polypeptide between CYP450 and AKR forth maybe used, including the nucleic acid sequence set forth herein in SEQ IDNO: 322.

Growth of the host cells leads to production of the CYP450 and/or AKRpolypeptides. The polypeptides subsequently may be recovered, isolatedand separated from other host cell components by a variety of differentprotein purification techniques including, e.g. ion-exchangechromatography, size exclusion chromatography, affinity chromatography,hydrophobic interaction chromatography, reverse phase chromatography,gel filtration, etc. Further general guidance with respect to proteinpurification may for example be found in: Cutler, P. ProteinPurification Protocols, Humana Press, 2004, Second Ed. Thussubstantially pure preparations of the CYP450 and/or AKR polypeptidesmay be obtained.

In accordance herewith a benzylisoquinoline derivative is brought incontact with catalytic quantities of one or more of the enzymes CYP450and AKR under reaction conditions permitting an enzyme catalyzedchemical conversion of the benzylisoquinoline derivative. In preferredembodiments, the agents are brought in contact with each other and mixedto form a mixture. In preferred embodiments, the mixture is an aqueousmixture comprising water and further optionally additional agents tofacilitate enzyme catalysis, including buffering agents, salts, pHmodifying agents. As hereinbefore mentioned, it is particularlypreferred that the reaction mixture comprises NADPH and a reductase. Thereaction may be performed at a range of different temperatures. Inpreferred embodiments, the reaction is performed at a temperaturebetween about 18° C. and about 37° C. Upon completion of the in vitroreaction (R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticuline precursor may be obtained inmore or less pure form.

In Vivo Synthesis of (R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticuline Precursor

In accordance with certain aspects of the present disclosure, abenzylisoquinoline derivative is brought in contact with catalyticquantities of one or more of the enzymes CYP450 and AKR under reactionconditions permitting an enzyme catalyzed chemical conversion of thebenzylisoquinoline derivative under in vivo reaction conditions. Undersuch in vivo reaction conditions living cells are modified in such amanner that they produce (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor.In certain embodiments, the living cells are microorganisms, includingbacterial cells and fungal cells. In other embodiments, the living cellsare multicellular organisms, including plants and plant cell cultures.

In one embodiment, the living cells are selected to be host cells notnaturally capable of capable of producing a benzylisoquinolinederivative, (S)-Reticuline, a (R)-Reticuline precursor or(R)-Reticuline. In another embodiment, the host cells are naturallycapable of producing (S)-Reticuline or a benzylisoquinoline derivativebut not (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor, i.e. the cellsare not naturally capable of performing the epimerization reaction fromthe (S)-enantiomer to the (R)-enantiomer. In another embodiment, thecells are able to produce a benzylisoquinoline derivative or(S)-Reticuline and (R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticuline precursor but thelevels of (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline precursor are lower thandesirable and the levels of (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline precursorare modulated relative to the levels in the unmodified cells. Such cellsinclude, without limitation, bacteria, yeast, other fungal cells, plantcells, or animal cells.

In order to produce (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline precursor, providedherein is further a method for preparing (R)-Reticuline or(R)-Reticuline precursor comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising as        operably linked components:        -   (i) a first nucleic acid sequence encoding a CYP450            polypeptide;        -   (ii) a second nucleic acid sequence encoding an AKR            polypeptide; and        -   (iii) one or more nucleic acid sequences capable of            controlling expression in a host cell;    -   (b) introducing the chimeric nucleic acid sequence into a host        cell and growing the host cell to produce CYP450 and AKR and to        produce (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline precursor; and    -   (c) recovering (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline precursor.

In preferred embodiments, the first and second nucleic acid sequencesare operably linked in order to produce a fusion polypeptide comprisingCYP450 and AKR.

There is further provided a method for preparing (R)-Reticuline or(R)-Reticuline precursor comprising:

-   -   (b) providing a first chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising        as operably linked components a first nucleic acid sequence        encoding a CYP450 polypeptide and a first nucleic acid sequence        controlling expression of the first nucleic acid sequence in the        cell;    -   (c) providing a second chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising        as operably linked components a second nucleic acid sequence        encoding an AKR polypeptide and a second nucleic acid sequence        controlling expression of the second nucleic acid sequence in        the cell;    -   (c) introducing the first and second chimeric nucleic acid        sequences into a host cell and growing the host cell to produce        CYP450 and AKR and to produce (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline        precursor; and

(d) recovering (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline precursor.

In preferred embodiments, the nucleic acid sequences encoding CYP450 andAKR are selected from the nucleic acid sequences encoding CYP450 and AKRobtainable or obtained from Papaver somniferum and other members of thePapaveraceae, Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae or Moraceae family ofplants comprising such compounds as desired. Suitable Papaveraceaemembers include, but are not limited to, species belonging to the genusPapaver; Corydalis; Chelidonium; and Romeria. Such species may be ableto make (R)-Reticuline, including, but not limited to, plant speciesselected from the species Chelidonium majus; Corydalis bulbosa;Corydalis cava; Corydalis ochotenis; Corydalis ophiocarpa; Corydalisplatycarpa; Corydalis tuberosa; Papaver armeniacum; Papaver Bracteatum;Papaver cylindricum; Papaver decaisnei; Papaver fugax; Papaveroreophyllum; Papaver orientale; Papaver paconifolium; Papaver persicum;Papaver psuedo-orientale; Papaver rhoeas; Papaver rhopalothece; Papaversetigerum; Papaver somniferum; Papaver tauricolum; Papavertriniaefolium; and Romeria carica. In particularly preferredembodiments, the nucleic acid sequences encoding CYP450 and AKR arenucleic acid sequences selected from the nucleic acid sequences encodingCYP450 and AKR obtainable or obtained from Papaver somniferum, Papaverbracteatum and Papaver rhoeas. In further preferred embodiments, one ofthe nucleic acid sequences encoding CYP450 set forth herein as SEQ IDNOs: 116 to 218; SEQ ID NO: 324 ; and SEQ ID NO: 337. In preferredembodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encoding the AKR is one of thenucleic acid sequences encoding AKR set forth herein as SEQ ID NOs: 1 to58; SEQ ID NO: 326; SEQ ID NO: 328; SEQ ID NO: 339; and SEQ ID NO: 341.In further particularly preferred embodiments, the nucleic acidsequences encoding CYP450 and AKR are nucleic acid sequences capable ofproducing a CYP450-AKR fusion polypeptide, including without limitationthe sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 322.

In accordance herewith, the nucleic acid sequence encoding CYP450 andAKR are linked to a nucleic acid sequence capable of controllingexpression CYP450 and AKR in a host cell. Accordingly, the presentdisclosure also provides a nucleic acid sequence encoding CYP450 and AKRlinked to a promoter capable of controlling expression in a host cell.Nucleic acid sequences capable of controlling expression in host cellsthat may be used herein include any transcriptional promoter capable ofcontrolling expression of polypeptides in host cells. Generally,promoters obtained from bacterial cells are used when a bacterial hostis selected in accordance herewith, while a fungal promoter will be usedwhen a fungal host is selected, a plant promoter will be used when aplant cell is selected, and so on. Further nucleic acid elements capableelements of controlling expression in a host cell includetranscriptional terminators, enhancers and the like, all of which may beincluded in the chimeric nucleic acid sequences of the presentdisclosure. It will be understood by those ordinary skill in the artthat operable linkage of nucleic acid sequences includes linkage ofpromoters and sequences capable of controlling expression to codingsequences in the 5′ to 3′ direction of transcription.

In accordance with the present disclosure, the chimeric nucleic acidsequences comprising a promoter capable of controlling expression inhost cell linked to a nucleic acid sequence encoding CYP450 and AKR, canbe integrated into a recombinant expression vector which ensures goodexpression in the host cell. Accordingly, the present disclosureincludes a recombinant expression vector comprising as operably linkedcomponents:

-   -   (i) a nucleic acid sequence capable of controlling expression in        a host cell; and    -   (ii) a nucleic acid sequence encoding CYP450, wherein the        expression vector is suitable for expression in a host cell.

The present disclosure includes a recombinant expression vectorcomprising as operably linked components:

-   -   (i) a nucleic acid sequence capable of controlling expression in        a host cell; and    -   (ii) a nucleic acid sequence encoding AKR, wherein the        expression vector is suitable for expression in a host cell.

The present disclosure further includes a recombinant expression vectorcomprising as operably linked components:

-   -   (i) a nucleic acid sequence capable of controlling expression in        a host cell; and    -   (ii) a nucleic acid sequence encoding CYP450 and AKR,

wherein the expression vector is suitable for expression in a host cell.The term “suitable for expression in a host cell” means that therecombinant expression vector comprises the chimeric nucleic acidsequence of the present disclosure linked to genetic elements requiredto achieve expression in a host cell. Genetic elements that may beincluded in the expression vector in this regard include atranscriptional termination region, one or more nucleic acid sequencesencoding marker genes, one or more origins of replication and the like.In preferred embodiments, the expression vector further comprisesgenetic elements required for the integration of the vector or a portionthereof in the host cell's genome, for example if a plant host cell isused the T-DNA left and right border sequences which facilitate theintegration into the plant's nuclear genome.

Pursuant to the present disclosure, the expression vector may furthercontain a marker gene. Marker genes that may be used in accordance withthe present disclosure include all genes that allow the distinction oftransformed cells from non-transformed cells, including all selectableand screenable marker genes. A marker gene may be a resistance markersuch as an antibiotic resistance marker against, for example, kanamycinor ampicillin. Screenable markers that may be employed to identifytransformants through visual inspection include β-glucuronidase (GUS)(U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,268,463 and 5,599,670) and green fluorescent protein(GFP) (Niedz et al., 1995, Plant Cell Rep., 14: 403).

One host cell that particularly conveniently may be used is Escherichiacoli. The preparation of the E. coli vectors may be accomplished usingcommonly known techniques such as restriction digestion, ligation, gelelectrophoresis, DNA sequencing, the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) andother methodologies. A wide variety of cloning vectors are available toperform the necessary steps required to prepare a recombinant expressionvector. Among the vectors with a replication system functional in E.coli, are vectors such as pBR322, the pUC series of vectors, the M13 mpseries of vectors, pBluescript etc. Typically, these cloning vectorscontain a marker allowing selection of transformed cells. Nucleic acidsequences may be introduced in these vectors, and the vectors may beintroduced in E. coli by preparing competent cells, electroporation orusing other well known methodologies to a person of skill in the art. E.coli may be grown in an appropriate medium including but not limited to,Luria-Broth medium and harvested. Recombinant expression vectors mayreadily be recovered from cells upon harvesting and lysing of the cells.Further, general guidance with respect to the preparation of recombinantvectors and growth of recombinant organisms may be found in, forexample: Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, a Laboratory Manual, ColdSpring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2001, Third Ed.

Further included in the present disclosure, are a host cell wherein thehost cell comprises a chimeric nucleic acid sequence comprising asoperably linked components one or more nucleic acid sequences encodingone or more of the polypeptides selected from the group consisting ofCYP450 and AKR. As hereinbefore mentioned, the host cell is preferably ahost cell not capable of naturally producing a benzylisoquinolinederivative, (S)-Reticuline, or (R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticulineprecursor. In another embodiment, the host cell is naturally capable ofproducing (S)-Reticuline a benzylisoquinoline derivative but not(R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor. In another embodiment,the host cell is able to produce a benzylisoquinoline derivative,(S)-Reticuline, or (R)-Reticuline or a (R)-Reticuline precursor, but thelevels of (R)-Reticuline or the (R)-Reticuline precursor are lower thandesirable and the levels of (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticuline precursorare modulated relative to the levels of (R)-Reticuline or (R)-Reticulineprecursor in the native, unmodified cells. In embodiments wherein thecells are unable to naturally produce (S)-Reticuline or abenzylisoquinoline derivative, (S)-Reticuline or the benzylisoquinolinederivative may be provided to the cells as part of the cell's growthmedium. In other embodiments, wherein the cells are unable to naturallyproduce (S)-Reticuline or a benzylisoquinoline derivative, a precursorcompound of (S)-Reticuline or a benzylisoquinoline derivative capable ofbeing converted by the cells into (S)-Reticuline or a benzylisoquinolinederivative, respectively, may be provided. Alternative substrates thatmay be provided to the cells as part of the cellular growth mediuminclude, but are not limited to, (S)-Norcoclaurine,(S)—N-Methylnorcoclaurine, (S)-Norlaudanosaline,(S)—N-Methylnorlaudanosalin (5)-Coclaurine, (S)—N-Methylcoclaurine,(S)-3′-Hydroxycoclaurine, (S)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine),(S)-Higenamine, (S)—N-Methylhigenamine, (S)-Laudanosoline,(S)-Norreticuline, (S)-Colletine, and (S)-Orientaline. Cells that may beused in accordance herewith include, without limitation, bacterial,yeast, or other fungal cells, plant cells, animal cells, or syntheticcells.

Further included in the present disclosure are compositions forepimerizing an (S)-enantiomer into an (R)-enantiomer, including anenzyme mixture comprising a first polypeptide capable of oxidizing abenzylisoquinoline derivative to an oxidized benzylisoquinolinederivative and a second polypeptide capable of reducing the oxidizedbenzylisoquinoline derivative to a (R)-Reticuline precursor, and furtherincluding an enzyme mixture comprising a first polypeptide capable ofoxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form 1,2-Dehydroreticuline and a secondpolypeptide capable of reducing 1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form(R)-Reticuline. In preferred embodiments, the first polypeptide is acytochrome P450 and the second polypeptide is an AKR.

In some embodiments, AKR and CYP450 polypeptides are operably linked toform a fusion polypeptide. Accordingly, further included in the presentdisclosure is a polypeptide comprising or consisting of SEQ. ID NO: 323.

The present invention further includes compositions comprising nucleicacid sequences encoding polypeptides capable of epimerizing an(S)-enantiomer into an (R)-enantiomer. In preferred embodiments, thenucleic acid sequences are a nucleic acid sequence encoding a CYP450 andan AKR, together capable of epimerizing an (S)-enantiomer into an(R)-enantiomer, and preferably capable of oxidizing a benzylisoquinolinederivative to an oxidized benzylisoquinoline derivative, and reducingthe benzylisoquinoline derivative to (R)-Reticuline precursor, and morepreferably capable of oxidizing (S)-Reticuline to form1,2-Dehydroreticuline reducing 1,2-Dehydroreticuline to form(R)-Reticuline. In preferred embodiments, the nucleic acid sequenceencoding AKR and CYP450 are operably linked to produce a CYP450-AKRfusion polypeptide. Accordingly further included in the presentdisclosure is SEQ. ID NO: 322.

The amounts of (R)-Reticuline that accumulates in the host cell mayvary. In embodiments of the disclosure wherein the host cell naturallyproduces (R)-Reticuline and (S)-Reticuline (e.g. Papaver somniferumcells), the ratio of (R)-Reticuline to (S)-Reticuline synthesized invivo by such cells prepared to comprise chimeric nucleic acid sequencesin accordance with the present disclosure, exceeds the ratio of(R)-Reticuline to (S)-Reticuline present in the natural host cells (i.e.cells not comprising the chimeric nucleic acid sequences) or host cellextracts. Preferably the ratio of (R)-Reticuline to (S)-Reticuline inhost cells or host cell extracts is greater than 21:79, e.g. at least0.3:1, at least 0.4:1, at least 0.5:1, at least 1:1, at least 2:1, atleast 3:1, or at least 4:1.

Use of (R)-Reticuline and (R)-Reticuline Precursors

(R)-Reticuline obtained in accordance with the present disclosure may beformulated for use as a pharmaceutical drug, therapeutic agent ormedicinal agent. Thus the present disclosure further includes apharmaceutical composition comprising (R)-Reticuline prepared inaccordance with the methods of the present disclosure. Pharmaceuticaldrug preparations comprising (R)-Reticuline in accordance with thepresent disclosure preferably further comprise vehicles, excipients,diluents, and auxiliary substances, such as wetting or emulsifyingagents, pH buffering substances and the like. These vehicles, excipientsand auxiliary substances are generally pharmaceutical agents that may beadministered without undue toxicity. Pharmaceutically acceptableexcipients include, but are not limited to, liquids such as water,saline, polyethyleneglycol, hyaluronic acid, glycerol and ethanol.Pharmaceutically acceptable salts can also be included therein, forexample, mineral acid salts such as hydrochlorides, phosphates,sulfates, and the like; and the salts of organic acids such as acetates,propionates, benzoates, and the like. It is also preferred, although notrequired, that the preparation will contain a pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipient that serves as a stabilizer. Examples of suitablecarriers that also act as stabilizers for peptides include, withoutlimitation, pharmaceutical grades of dextrose, sucrose, lactose,sorbitol, inositol, dextran, and the like. Other suitable carriersinclude, again without limitation, starch, cellulose, sodium or calciumphosphates, citric acid, glycine, polyethylene glycols (PEGs), andcombinations thereof. The pharmaceutical composition may be formulatedfor oral and intravenous administration and other routes ofadministration as desired. Dosing may vary and may be optimized usingroutine experimentation. The pharmaceutical composition comprising(R)-Reticuline may be used to treat baldness or muscle tension.

In further embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods fortreating a patient with a pharmaceutical composition comprising(R)-Reticuline prepared in accordance with the present disclosure.Accordingly, the present disclosure further provides a method fortreating a patient with (R)-Reticuline prepared according to the methodsof the present disclosure, said method comprising administering to thepatient a composition comprising (R)-Reticuline, wherein (R)-Reticulineis administered in an amount sufficient to ameliorate a medicalcondition in the patient. In preferred embodiments, the medicalcondition is selected from the group consisting of baldness and releaseof muscle tension.

Furthermore the (R)-Reticuline provided herein is useful as an agent tomanufacture other secondary metabolites or medicinal compositionsincluding, without limitation, salutaridine, codeine and morphine, andfurther including thebaine, papaverine, noscapine, codamine, laudine andlaudanosine (+)-pallidine, (−)-isoboldine, and (−)-corytuberine.

The (R)-Reticuline precursors provided herein are useful as an agent tomanufacture other secondary metabolites notably (R)-Reticuline. Asillustrated in FIG. 1 (R)—N-methylcoclaurine may be used as an agent tomanufacture (R)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine.(R)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine may be used as an agent to manufacture(R)-Reticuline.

Alternate Uses of Nucleotide Sequences Encoding AKR and CYP450Polypeptides

In a further aspect, the nucleic acid sequences encoding AKR and/orCYP450 may be use to detect the presence or absence of the genes in asample. Thus in one embodiment of the present disclosure, there isprovided a method of detecting the presence or absence of a nucleic acidsequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450 comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a sample suspected to comprise a nucleic acid        sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450; and    -   (b) analyzing the sample for the presence of a nucleotide        sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450.

In a preferred embodiment, the sample comprises cells comprising genomicDNA. Thus in a preferred embodiment, there is provided a method ofdetecting the presence or absence of a nucleic acid sequence encodingAKR and/or CYP450 in a cell comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a cell;    -   (b) extracting genomic DNA from the cell; and    -   (c) analyzing the genomic DNA for the presence of nucleic acid        sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450.

Methods to analyze genomic DNA are generally known to the art, andinclude, for example, the use of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) andspecific polynucleotide primers to amplify specific portions of thenucleotide sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450. Further restrictiondigestion and Southern blot analysis may be used. The analysis mayfurther be directed to introns, exons or regions upstream or downstreamof the nucleic acid sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450. The analysisfurther may be directed at identifying a genomic locus comprising anucleic acid sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450, wherein such locus islinked to modulated levels of expression of AKR and/or CYP450.

In preferred embodiments, the cell is a plant cell. In further preferredembodiments, the cell is plant cell obtained from a plant belonging tothe plant families Papaveraceae, Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae orMoraceae, and more preferably, the plant belongs to the species Papaversomniferum, Papaver bracteatum or Papaver rhoeas.

In preferred embodiments, the CYP450 and/or AKR sequence used in orderto perform the foregoing analysis is set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 116 to218; XSEQ ID NO: 324; and SEQ ID NO: 337; or those set forth in SEQ IDNOs: 1 to 58; SEQ ID NO: 326; SEQ ID NO: 328; SEQ ID NO: 339; and SEQ IDNO: 341, or the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 322.

In further aspects, the nucleic acid sequences encoding AKR and/orCYP450 may be used to produce a cell that has modulated levels ofexpression of AKR and/or CYP450. Such a cell is preferably a plant cellnatively expressing AKR and/or CYP450 and, more preferably, a plant cellobtained from a plant belonging to the plant families Papaveraceae,Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae or Moraceae, and, most preferably,the plant belongs to the species Papaver somniferum, Papaver bracteatumor Papaver rhoeas. Thus the present disclosure further provides a methodfor modulating expression of nucleic acid sequences in a cell naturallyexpressing AKR and/or CYP450 comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a cell naturally expressing AKR and/or CYP450;    -   (b) mutagenizing the cell;    -   (c) growing the cell to obtain a plurality of cells; and    -   (d) determining if the plurality of cells comprises a cell        comprising modulated levels of AKR and/or CYP450.

In preferred embodiments, the method further comprises a step (e) asfollows:

-   -   (e) selecting a cell comprising modulated levels of AKR and/or        CYP450 and growing such cell to obtain a plurality of cells.

In further preferred embodiments, plant seed cells are used to performthe mutagenesis. Mutagenic agents that may be used are chemical agents,including without limitation, base analogues, deaminating agents,alkylating agents, intercalating agents, transposons, bromine, sodiumazide, ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) as well as physical agents,including, without limitation, radiation, such as ionizing radiation andUV radiation. Thus the present disclosure further provides a method forproducing a seed setting plant comprising modulated expression ofnucleic acid sequences in a cell naturally expressing AKR and/or CYP450,the method comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a seed setting plant naturally expressing AKR        and/or CYP450;    -   (b) mutagenizing seed of the plant to obtain mutagenized seed;    -   (c) growing the mutagenized seed into the next generation        mutagenized plants capable of setting the next generation seed;        and    -   (d) obtaining the next generation seed, or another portion of        the mutagenized plants, and analyzing if the next generation        plants or next generation seed exhibits modulated AKR and/or        CYP450 expression.

In preferred embodiments, a plurality of generations of plants and/orseed may be obtained, and portions of plants and/or seed in any or allof such generations may be analyzed. Analysis is typically performed bycomparing expression levels (e.g. RNA levels or protein levels) innon-mutagenized (wild type) plants or seed with expression inmutagenized plants or seed. In further preferred embodiments, theanalysis in step (d) may be performed by analyzing heteroduplexformation between wildtype DNA and mutated DNA. Thus in preferredembodiments, the analysing in step (d) comprises

-   -   i. extracting DNA from mutated plants;    -   ii. amplifying a portion of the DNA comprising a nucleic acid        sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450 to obtain amplified mutated        DNA;    -   iii. extracting DNA from wild type plants;    -   iv. mixing the DNA from wild type plants with the amplified        mutated DNA and form a heteroduplexed polynucleotide;    -   v. incubating the heteroduplexed polynucleotide with a single        stranded restriction nuclease capable of restricting at a region        of the heteroduplexed polynucleotide that is mismatched; and    -   vi. determining the site of mismatch in the heteroduplex        polynucleotide.

In preferred embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encoding AKR and/orCYP450 that is used is set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 116 to 218; SEQ ID NO:324; and SEQ ID NO: 337; or those set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 58; SEQID NO: 326; SEQ ID NO: 328; SEQ ID NO: 339; and SEQ ID NO: 341; or thesequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 322.

In further aspects, the nucleic acid sequences encoding AKR and/orCYP450 may be used to produce a cell that has modulated levels ofexpression of AKR and/or CYP450 by gene silencing. Thus the presentdisclosure further includes a method of reducing the expression of AKRand/or CYP450 in a cell, comprising:

-   -   (a) providing a cell expressing AKR and/or CYP450; and    -   (b) silencing expression of AKR and/or CYP450 in the cell.

In preferred embodiments, the cell is a plant cell. Preferably, theplant is a member belonging to the plant families Papaveraceae,Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae or Moraceae, and more preferably,the plant belongs to the species Papaver somniferum, Papaver bracteatumor Papaver rhoeas. A preferred methodology to silence AKR and/or CYP450that is used is virus induced gene silencing (known to the art as VIGS).In general, in plants infected with unmodified viruses, the viral genomeis targeted. However, when viral vectors have been modified to carryinserts derived from host genes (e.g. portions of sequences encoding AKRand/or CYP450), the process is additionally targeted against thecorresponding mRNAs. Thus the present disclosure further includes amethod of producing a plant expressing reduced levels of AKR and/orCYP450, the method comprising

-   -   (a) providing a plant expressing AKR and/or CYP450; and    -   (b) reducing expression of AKR and/or CYP450 in the plant using        virus induced gene silencing.

This aspect of the disclosure is further detailed in Example 5.

The hereinbefore mentioned methods to modulate expression levels of AKRand/or CYP450 may result in modulations in the levels of plant alkaloidsin plants including, without limitation, morphine, codeine, thebaine,papaverine, noscapine, (S)-Reticuline, (R)-Reticuline, codamine,laudanine and laudanosine. The methods further may result in themodulation of the ratio of (S)-Reticuline, (R)-Reticuline. Preferablysuch modulation results in a ratio of (R)-Reticuline to (S)-Reticulinein plant cells or plant cell extracts of less than 21:79, morepreferably less than 0.1, more preferably less than 0.05, morepreferably less than 0.025 and more preferably less than 0.01. Suchmodulation is illustrated in Example 5. Thus the present disclosureincludes the use of the methodologies to modify the levels of plantalkaloids in a plant naturally capable of producing plant alkaloids.Preferably, such plants belong to the plant families Papaveraceae,Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae or Moraceae, and more preferably,the plant belongs to the species Papaver somniferum, Papaver bracteatumor Papaver rhoeas.

In yet further aspects of the present disclosure, the nucleic acidsequences encoding AKR and/or CYP450 may be used to genotype plants.Preferably, the plant is a member belonging to the plant familiesPapaveraceae, Lauraceae, Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae or Moraceae, and morepreferably, the plant belongs to the species Papaver somniferum, Papaverbracteatum or Papaver rhoeas. In general, genotyping provides a means ofdistinguishing homologs of a chromosome pair and can be used to identifysegregants in subsequent generations of a plant population. Molecularmarker methodologies can be used for phylogenetic studies,characterizing genetic relationships among plant varieties, identifyingcrosses or somatic hybrids, localizing chromosomal segments affectingmonogenic traits, map based cloning, and the study of quantitativeinheritance. See, e.g., Plant Molecular Biology: A Laboratory Manual,Chapter 7, Clark, Ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1997). For molecularmarker methodologies, see generally, The DNA Revolution by Andrew H.Paterson 1996 (Chapter 2) in: Genome Mapping in Plants (ed. Andrew H.Paterson) by Academic Press/R. G. Landis Company, Austin, Tex., pp.7-21. The particular method of genotyping in accordance with the presentdisclosure may involve the employment of any molecular marker analytictechnique including, but not limited to, restriction fragment lengthpolymorphisms (RFLPs). RFLPs reflect allelic differences between DNArestriction fragments caused by nucleotide sequence variability. As isknown to those of skill in the art, RFLPs are typically detected byextraction of plant genomic DNA and digestion of the genomic DNA withone or more restriction enzymes. Typically, the resulting fragments areseparated according to size and hybridized with a nucleic acid probe.Restriction fragments from homologous chromosomes are revealed.Differences in fragment size among alleles represent an RFLP. Thus, thepresent disclosure further provides a means to follow segregation of aportion or genomic DNA encoding AKR and/or CYP450, as well aschromosomal nucleic acid sequences genetically linked to these AKRand/or CYP450 encoding nucleic acid sequences using such techniques asRFLP analysis. Linked chromosomal nucleic sequences are within 50centiMorgans (cM), often within 40 or 30 cM, preferably within 20 or 10cM, more preferably within 5, 3, 2, or 1 cM of a genomic nucleic acidsequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450. Thus, in accordance with thepresent disclosure the AKR and/or CYP450 encoding sequences of thepresent disclosure may be used as markers to evaluate in a plantpopulation the segregation of nucleic acid sequences genetically linkedthereto. Preferably, the plant population comprises or consists ofplants belonging to the plant families Papaveraceae, Lauraceae,Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae or Moraceae, and more preferably, the plantpopulation comprises or consists of plants belonging to the speciesPapaver somniferum, Papaver bracteatum or Papaver rhoeas.

In accordance with the present disclosure, the nucleic acid probesemployed for molecular marker mapping of plant nuclear genomesselectively hybridize, under selective hybridization conditions, to agenomic sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450. In preferred embodiments,the probes are selected from the nucleic acid sequences encoding AKRand/or CYP450 provided by the present disclosure. Typically, theseprobes are cDNA probes. Typically these probes are at least 15 bases inlength, more preferably at least 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, or 50 bases inlength. Generally, however, the probes are less than about 1 kilobase inlength. Preferably, the probes are single copy probes that hybridize toa unique locus in a haploid plant chromosome complement. Some exemplaryrestriction enzymes employed in RFLP mapping are EcoRI, EcoRv, and SstI.As used herein the term “restriction enzyme” includes reference to acomposition that recognizes and, alone or in conjunction with anothercomposition, cleaves a polynucleotide at a specific nucleotide sequence.

Other methods of differentiating polymorphic (allelic) variants of thenucleic acid sequences of the present disclosure can be used byutilizing molecular marker techniques well known to those of skill inthe art, including, without limitation: 1) single stranded conformationanalysis (SSCP); 2) denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE); 3)RNase protection assays; 4) allele-specific oligonucleotides (ASOs); 5)the use of proteins which recognize nucleotide mismatches, such as theE. coli mutS protein; and 6) allele-specific PCR. Other approaches basedon the detection of mismatches between the two complementary DNA strandsinclude, without limitation, clamped denaturing gel electrophoresis(CDGE); heteroduplex analysis (HA), and chemical mismatch cleavage(CMC). Thus, the present disclosure further provides a method ofgenotyping comprising the steps of contacting, under stringenthybridization conditions, a sample suspected of comprising a nucleicacid encoding AKR and CYP450, with a nucleic acid probe capable ofhybridizing thereto. Generally, the sample is a plant sample;preferably, a sample suspected of comprising a Papaver somniferumnucleic acid sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450 (e.g., gene, mRNA). Thenucleic acid probe selectively hybridizes, under stringent conditions,to a subsequence of the nucleic acid sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450comprising a polymorphic marker. Selective hybridization of the nucleicacid probe to the polymorphic marker nucleic acid sequence yields ahybridization complex. Detection of the hybridization complex indicatesthe presence of that polymorphic marker in the sample. In preferredembodiments, the nucleic acid probe comprises a portion of a nucleicacid sequence encoding AKR and/or CYP450.

EXAMPLES

Hereinafter are provided examples of specific embodiments for performingthe methods of the present disclosure, as well as embodimentsrepresenting the compositions of the present disclosure. The examplesare provided for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended tolimit the scope of the present disclosure in any way.

Example 1—Conversion of (S)-Reticuline to (R)-Reticuline

This Example demonstrates the in vitro conversion of (S)-Reticuline to(R)-Reticuline using an in enzyme mixture in the form of a fusionpolypeptide of Papaver somniferum comprised of a CYP450 and an AKRmoiety (SEQ. ID: NO 323).

Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain YPH499 harboringpESC-leu2d::PsCPR/PsREPI was grown and microsomes purified as describedbelow. Briefly, the yeast strain was grown in Synthetic Complete (SC)medium lacking leucine supplemented with 2% glucose for 16 hours at 30°C. and 250 rpm. One milliliter of culture was added to 50 mL of SCmedium lacking leucine, supplemented with 1.8% galactose, 0.2% glucoseand 1% raffinose and grown for 72 hours at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Cultureswere then centrifuged at 4,000 g for 5 minutes and washed with 5 mL ofTEK buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 8, 1 mM EDTA, 100 mM KCl). Pellets wereresuspended in 1 mL TESB buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 8, 1 mM EDTA, 0.6 Msorbitol) and an equal volume of 0.5 mm glass beads were added. Thetubes were shaken by hand at 10° C. for 4 minutes. The beads were washedwith TESB and the washings collected and centrifuged at 14,000 g for 10min. The supernatant was ultracentrifuged for 1 hour at 125,000 g andthe supernatant discarded. Microsomes were then resuspended in 50 mMHEPES pH 7.5.

Enzyme assays contained 500 μN NADPH and 50 μM of (5)-Reticuline inHEPES buffer (pH 7.5) and microsomes prepared as described above. Assayswere incubated overnight at 30° C. Following the reaction, the assaysamples were run on an Agilent 1260 HLPC at a flow rate of 0.2 ml/minand compounds were separated using a LUX cellulose-1 chiral column (150mm×2.1 mm i.d.; Phenomenex) with 75% ammonium bicarbonate supplementedwith 0.1% dethylamine (Solvent A) and 25% acetonitrile with 0.1%diethylamine (Solvent B). (R)-Reticuline and (S)-Reticuline weremonitored at a wavelength of 284 nm.

Results are shown in FIG. 3 . As can be seen in FIG. 3 , the retentiontime of the authentic standard controls (R)-Reticuline and(S)-Reticuline on the chiral column is approximately 13.5 minutes (toppanel); and 15 minutes (second panel from top), respectively. The bottompanel shows the results of an assay in which no enzyme is present in themixture and demonstrates that under these reaction conditions no(S)-Reticuline is epimerized to (R)-Reticuline. The third panel from thetop shows that in the presence of the enzyme mixture (5)-Reticuline isepimerized to (R)-Reticuline (see arrow, and appearance of peak at aretention time of approximately 15 min).

Example 2—Conversion of (S)-Reticuline to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline

This example demonstrates the in vitro conversion in yeast of(S)-Reticuline to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline using the CYP450 of Papaverrhoeas (SEQ. ID: NO 325). Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain YPH499harboring pESC-leu2d::PsCPR/PrDRS was grown and microsomes purified asdescribed below. Briefly, the yeast strain was grown in SyntheticComplete (SC) medium lacking leucine supplemented with 2% glucose for 16hours at 30° C. and 250 rpm. One milliliter of this culture was added to50 mL of SC medium lacking leucine, supplemented with 1.8% galactose,0.2% glucose and 1% raffinose and grown for 72 hours at 30° C. and 250rpm. Cultures were then centrifuged at 4,000 g for 5 minutes and washedwith 5 mL of TEK buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 8, 1 mM EDTA, 100 mM KCl).Pellets were then resuspended in 1 mL TESB buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 8,1 mM EDTA, 0.6 M sorbitol) and an equal volume of 0.5 mm glass beadswere added. The tubes were shaken by hand at 10° C. for 4 min. The beadswere washed with TESB and the washings collected and centrifuged at14,000 g for 10 min. The supernatant was then ultracentrifuged for 1hour at 125,000 g and the supernatant discarded. Microsomes were thenresuspended in 50 mM HEPES pH 7.5.

Enzyme assays contained 500 μM NADPH and 50 μM of (5)-Reticuline inHEPES buffer (pH 7.5) and microsomes prepared as described above. Assayswere incubated overnight at 30° C. Following the reaction, the assaysamples were run on an Agilent 1260 HLPC coupled to a 6400 B massspectrometer with an electronspray ionization source operating inpositive mode. The mass spectrometer scanned from 200-400 m/z. Compoundswere separated using the HLPC method for enzyme assays describedpreviously (Farrow S C and Facchini, P J, (2013), J. Biol. Chem. (288)pp 28,997-29,012; dioxygenases catalyze O-demethylation andO,O-demethylation with widespread roles in benzylisoquinoline alkaloidmetabolism in opium poppy).

Results are shown in FIG. 4 . As can be seen in FIG. 4 (top panel), apeak with a retention time of approximately 3.1 minutes is observed onthe HPLC column in a control sample not comprising the enzyme. This peakcorresponds with the predicted retention time of 3.13 minutes for thelargest fragment of the collision-induced dissociation spectrum for(S)-Reticuline at m/z 330 (see: Table 1). The second panel from the topshows that no peaks are observed at m/z 328 in the same control sample,thus indicating the absence in the control sample of1,2-Dehydroreticuline. The third panel from the top shows that a peak isobserved at a retention time of approximately 3.1 minutes at m/z 330 inthe sample comprising the enzyme, thus indicating the presence of(S)-Reticuline in the assay sample. The bottom panel shows that a peakhaving a retention time of approximately 3.0 is observed at m/z 328 inthe assay sample. This peak corresponds with the predicted retentiontime of 3.02 minutes of the largest fragment of the collision-induceddissociation spectrum for 1,2-Dehydroreticuline at m/z 328 (see:Table 1) indicating the presence in the assay sample of1,2-Dehydroreticuline in the presence of the enzyme.

Example 3—Conversion of 1,2-Dehydroreticuline to (R)-Reticuline

This example demonstrates the in vitro conversion in yeast of1,2-Dehydroreticuline to (R)-Reticuline using AKR of Papaver rhoeas(SEQ. ID: NO 327).

A 16-hour, 50 mL LB supplemented with 50 μg/mL kanamycin monosulfate and35 μg/mL chloramphenicol culture of Escherichia coli strain Rosetta(DE3) haboring pET47b::PrDRR was added to 1 L of the same media andgrown at 37° C., 180 rpm until an OD600 of 0.6. IPTG was then added to afinal concentration of 1 mM and allowed to grow at 25° C., 180 rpm for 4h and the cell pellet was collected by centrifugation. Cells were lysedin buffer A (100 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 7.0, 300 mM NaCl, 10%(v/v) glycerol) supplemented with 2 mM phenylmethanesulfonylfluoride(PMSF) with a French press. The cellular debris was removed bycentrifugation at 14,000 g for 15 minutes. The total soluble proteinextract was combined with buffer A-equilibrated TALON (Clonetech) resinfor 45 minutes at 4° C., 65 rpm. The resin was washed twice with bufferA, and protein was eluted stepwise using a gradient of imidazole inbuffer A (2.5, 10, 100, 200 mM). The purified protein was eluted in 100mM imidazole.

Enzyme assays contained 500 μM NADPH, 50 μM of 1,2-Dehydroreticuline insodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) and protein prepared as describedabove. Assays were left overnight at 30° C. Following the reaction, theassay samples were run on an Agilent 1260 HLPC coupled to a 6400 B massspectrometer with an electronspray ionization source operating inpositive mode. The mass spectrometer scanned from 200-400 m/z. Compoundswere separated using the HLPC method for enzyme assays describedpreviously (Farrow S C and Facchini, P J, (2013), J. Biol. Chem. (288)pp 28,997-29,012; dioxygenases catalyze O-demethylation andO,O-demethylation with widespread roles in benzylisoquinoline alkaloidmetabolism in opium poppy).

Results are shown in FIG. 5 . As can be seen in FIG. 5 (top panel), apeak with a retention time of approximately 3.0 minutes is observed onthe HPLC column in a control sample not comprising the enzyme. This peakcorresponds with the predicted retention time of 3.02 minutes for thelargest fragment of the collision-induced dissociation spectrum for1,2-Dehydroreticuline at m/z 328 (see: Table 1). The second panel fromthe top shows no peak at a retention time of approximately 3.1 minutesis observed, thus (R)-Reticuline is absent in the sample. A small peakis observed at approximately 3.0 minutes in the same control sample.This peak represents an isotopic form of the substrate1,2-Dehydroreticuline. The third panel from the top shows that a peakwith a retention time of approximately 3.0 minutes is observed at m/z328 in the sample containing the enzyme, thus indicating the presence ofa small amount of unconsumed 1,2-Dehydroreticuline in the assay sample.The bottom panel shows that a peak having a retention time ofapproximately 3.1 is observed at m/z 330 in the assay sample. This peakcorresponds with the predicted retention time of 3.13 minutes of thelargest fragment of the collision-induced dissociation spectrum for(R)-Reticuline at m/z 330 (see: Table 1) indicating the presence in theassay sample of (R)-Reticuline in the presence of the enzyme.

Example 4—Conversion of (S)—N-Methylcoclaurine to (R)—N-Methylcoclaurine

This example demonstrates the in vitro conversion in yeast of(S)—N-methylcoclaurine to (R)—N-methylcoclaurine using an in enzymemixture in the form of a fusion polypeptide of Papaver somniferumcomprised of a CYP450 and an AKR moiety (SEQ. ID NO 2).

Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain YPH499 harboringpESC-leu2d::PsCPR/PsREPI was grown and microsomes purified as describedbelow. Briefly, the yeast strain was grown in Synthetic Complete (SC)medium lacking leucine supplemented with 2% glucose for 16 hours at 30°C. and 250 rpm. One milliliter of culture was added to 50 mL of SCmedium lacking leucine, supplemented with 1.8% galactose, 0.2% glucoseand 1% raffinose and grown for 72 hours at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Cultureswere then centrifuged at 4,000 g for 5 minutes and washed with 5 mL ofTEK buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 8, 1 mM EDTA, 100 mM KCl). Pellets wereresuspended in 1 mL TESB buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl pH 8, 1 mM EDTA, 0.6 Msorbitol) and an equal volume of 0.5 mm glass beads were added. Thetubes were shaken by hand at 10° C. for 4 minutes. The beads were washedwith TESB and the washings collected and centrifuged at 14,000 g for 10min. The supernatant was ultracentrifuged for 1 hour at 125,000 g andthe supernatant discarded. Microsomes were then resuspended in 50 mMHEPES pH 7.5.

Enzyme assays contained 500 μM NADPH and 50 μM of (S)—N-methylcoclaurinein HEPES buffer (pH 7.5) and microsomes prepared as described above.Assays were incubated overnight at 30° C. Following the reaction, theassay samples were run on an Agilent 1260 HLPC at a flow rate of 0.2ml/min and compounds were separated using a LUX cellulose-1 chiralcolumn (150 mm×2.1 mm i.d.; Phenomenex) with 75% ammonium bicarbonatesupplemented with 0.1% dethylamine (Solvent A) and 25% acetonitrile with0.1% diethylamine (Solvent B). (R)- and (S)—N-methylcoclaurine weremonitored at a wavelength of 230 nm.

Results are shown in FIG. 6 . As can be seen in FIG. 6 , the retentiontime of the authentic standard control (S)—N-methylcoclaurine on thechiral column is approximately 13.9 minutes (top panel). The bottompanel shows the results of an assay in which no enzyme is present in themixture and demonstrates that under these reaction conditions no(S)—N-methylcoclaurine is epimerized to (R)—N-methylcoclaurine. Themiddle panel shows that in the presence of the enzyme mixture(S)—N-methylcoclaurine is epimerized to (R)—N-methylcoclaurine. (seearrow, and appearance of peak at a retention time of approximately 16.3min)

Example 5—Gene Silencing of AKR and AKR-CYP450 Fusion Gene

This example show silencing of genes encoding the AKR and/or CYP450using virus-induced gene silencing WIGS).

REPI and/or COR1.3 (encoding codeinone reductase) transcript levels fromopium poppy (Papaver somniferum) (transcribed by SEQ. ID. NO: 322 andSEQ. ID NO: 328, respectively) in the Bea's Choice chemotype of opiumpoppy (Papaver somniferum) were suppressed using the tobacco rattlevirus (TRV) vector system. Two regions (REPI-a (FIG. 7A; Panel A) andREPI-5′ (FIG. 7C; Panel A)) of the REPI cDNA and one region of theCOR1.3 cDNA (FIG. 7B; Panel A) were amplified using the following primerpairs:

pTRV2-COR1.3 COR1.3-F, ggatccCATCAGTTCCATGCTCTGGT COR1.3-R,ggtaccGGGCTCATCTCCACTTGATT pTRV2-REPI-a REPI-a-F,ggatccCATCACTTCCAAGCTCTGGT REPI-a-R, ggtaccGGGCTCATCTCCACTTGATpTRV2-REPI-5′ REPI-5′-F, gaattcCCTACATACTGTATTGGGTTGAATCATG REPI-5′-R,ggtaccTAACGGGATAGGACGGTTT

The REPI-a region and the COR1.3 region exhibit considerable similarityresulting in the reciprocal co-silencing of REPI and COR1.3 in eachcase. In contrast, the REPI-5′ region is unique and result only in thesilencing of REPI, but not COR1.3.

Amplicons were individually cloned into pTRV2 and vectors were mobilizedin Agrobacterium tumefaciens as described previously. Apical meristemsof two to three week-old seedlings were infiltrated with a 1:1 mixtureof A. tumefaciens harboring pTRV1 and constructed pTRV2 containing thegene-specific fragments. Empty pTRV2 was used as a negative control andthe pTRV2-PDS construct encoding phytoene desaturase was used as apositive infiltration control. Infiltrated plants were cultivated in thegreenhouse for 8-10 weeks. Infiltration with A. tumefaciens, andcollection and processing of latex, stem and root samples for alkaloidand transcript analyses were performed as described previously.Typically, 20-30 plants were infiltrated with A. tumefaciens harboringpTRV1 and one pTRV2 construct. In approximately 70-80% of theinfiltrated plants, a mobilized fragment of the pTRV2 construct wasdetected by RT-PCR (FIG. 7A (Panel B); FIG. 7B (Panel B); FIG. 7C, PanelB), showing that these plants were successfully infected. Alkaloids wereextracted from lyophilized latex using methanol. Relative transcriptabundance was determined by qRT-PCR (FIG. 7A (Panel C); FIG. 7B (PanelC); FIG. 7C, Panel C). Alkaloid content and relative transcriptabundance data were generated from 6 individually infiltrated plants,and three technical replicates were performed on each sample. Latexsamples for infiltrated plants were analysed by LC-MS/MS. Effects on thealkaloid content of opium poppy plants infiltrated with A. tumefaciensharboring pTRV1 and each of 2 regions of REPI or COR1.3 in separatepTRV2 constructs were assessed using total ion chromatograms (FIG. 7A(Panel D); FIG. 7B (Panel D); FIG. 7C, Panel D) and by determining therelative abundance of 9 different alkaloids (morphine, codeine,thebaine, papaverine, noscapine, codamine, laudine and laudanosine) inlatex and roots (FIG. 7A (Panel E); FIG. 7B (Panel E); FIG. 7C, PanelE). In addition to lower morphine content, silencing of REPI or COR1.3caused significant reduction in the levels of codeine and thebaine.Silencing of REPI (i.e. the AKR-CYP450 gene) as well as silencing ofCOR1.3 (i.e. the AKR gene) resulted in significant increase in theaccumulation of reticuline, codamine, laudanine, laudanosine, and lessconsistently papaverine and noscapine. The ratio of (R)-reticuline to(S)-reticuline was approximately 21:79 in the latex of control (pTRV2)plants, but the ratio of (R)-reticuline to (S)-reticuline decreased toapproximately 2:98 in the latex of pTRV2-REPI-a plants (FIG. 7A (PanelF) and pTRV2-COR1.3 plants; FIG. 7B (Panel F); and to approximately 5:95in the latex of pTRV2-REPI-5′ plants in latex and roots (FIG. 7C, PanelF).

Example 6—Catalytic Activity of AKR in the Presence of NADPH/NADH andNADP⁺/NAD⁺

This Example shows the conversion of 1,2-Dehydroreticuline into(R)-Reticuline catalyzed by AKR polypeptide in the presence of thereducing agents NADH or NADPH. This Example further shows reversibilityof the foregoing reaction in the presence of the oxidizing agents NAD⁺or NADP⁺.

Experiments were performed essentially as described in Example 3 above,except that the reactions were performed using AKR obtained from Papaversomniferum and from Papaver rhoeas, and that in the reverse reaction(R)-Reticuline was provided as the substrate, and either NAD⁺ or NADP⁺was used as oxidizing agent to perform the enzymatic reaction. The lastmentioned reaction was conducted at pH 9. As shown in FIG. 8 , both inthe presence of NADH and NADPH 1,2-Dehydroreticuline is, using catalyticquantities of the AKR polypeptide of both Papaver somniferum (PsDRR)(FIG. 8A, Panel A) and from Papaver rhoeas (PrDRR) (FIG. 8B, Panel A),converted to (R)-Reticuline. As further shown in FIG. 8 , using both thePapaver somniferum AKR polypeptide PsDRR (FIG. 8A, Panel B) and thePapaver Rhoeas polypeptide PrDRR (FIG. 8B, Panel B) the reaction can bereversed, and in the presence of NAD⁺ or NADP⁺ (R)-Reticuline isconverted into 1,2-Dehydroreticuline.

Example 7—pH Dependence of AKR Activity

This Example shows the pH dependence of AKR polypeptide both in thepresence of reducing agent and oxidizing agent.

The pH dependence of both Papaver somniferum and Papaver rhoeas CYP450and AKR polypeptides was examined. Enzymatic reactions were conductedessentially as described in Example 3 and Example 6, except that the pHin each reaction was incrementally increased from pH 3.5 to pH 10. Theenzyme activity at each evaluated pH was quantitated by analysis ofsamples on an Agilent 1260 HLPC coupled to a 6400 B mass spectrometerwith an electronspray ionization source operating in positive mode. Themass spectrometer scanned from 200-400 m/z. Compounds were separatedusing the HLPC method for enzyme assays described previously (Farrow S Cand Facchini, P J, (2013), J. Biol. Chem. (288) pp 28,997-29,012;dioxygenases catalyze O-demethylation and O,O-demethylation withwidespread roles in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid metabolism in opiumpoppy).

The results are provided in FIG. 9 . Shown in Panel A are graphs showingenzymatic activity as a function of pH using Papaver somniferum CYP450(PsDRS) and AKR in the presence of NADPH (PsDRS forward) and in thepresence of NADP⁺ (PsDRS reverse). Shown in Panel B are graphs showingenzymatic activity as a function of pH using Papaver rhoeas CYP450(PrDRS) and AKR in the presence of NADPH (PrDRS forward) and in thepresence of NADP⁺ (PrDRS reverse). As can be seen in FIG. 9 , PsDRS andPrDRS convert (S)-Reticuline to 1,2-Dehydroreticuline at an optimum ofapproximately pH 8. In the presence of NADPH, PsDRR and PrDRR convert1,2-Dehydroreticuline to (R)-Reticuline at an optimum of approximatelypH 7. In the presence of NADP⁺, PsDRR and PrDRR convert (R)-reticulineto 1,2-Dehydroreticuline at an optimum of approximately pH 9.

Example 8—Gene Silencing of AKR and AKR-CYP450 Fusion Gene

This example show further silencing of genes encoding the AKR and/orCYP450 using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS).

Gene silencing experiments were conducted essentially as described inExample 5, except that the COR (AKR) and REPI (CYP450) genes weretargeted using the following constructs: REPIa, REPIb and COR.1.3. REPIarepresents a construct that targets a sequence conserved in both the CORgene and the REPI gene. By contrast, REPIb targets a region that isunique to REPI. COR 1.3 targets a region that is unique to COR.Transcript levels of REPI and COR were determined as described inExample 5. An empty vector was used as control (PTRV2) As can be seen inFIG. 10 , plants in which REPI is uniquely targeted through REPIbdisplay decreased levels of REPI transcript relative to the control(FIG. 10 —top panel), while COR transcript levels remain substantiallythe same (FIG. 10 —bottom panel). Plants in which REPI and COR are bothtargeted through REPIa display reduced transcript levels of REPI (FIG.10 —top panel) and COR (FIG. 10 —bottom panel). When COR was targetedusing COR1.3, COR transcript levels were diminished (FIG. 10 —bottompanel). In addition, REPI transcript levels also decreased relative tothe control (FIG. 10 —top panel) in response to silencing of CORtranscript levels by COR1.3.

TABLE 1 Collision- Retention induced Collision Compound timedissociation energy λ_(max) (HPLC column) (min) spectrum (eV) (nm)(R)-Reticuline 13.5 NA NA 284 (chiral column) (S)-Reticuline 15.0 NA NA284 (chiral column) (S)-Reticuline 3.13 330.2 (10), 210.1 25 NA (C18column) (6), 192.1 (100) 177.1 (4), 175.1 (14), 151.2 (4) 143.1 (16),137.1 (38) (R)-Reticuline 3.13 330.1 (30), 210.1 25 NA (C18 column)(31), 192.1 (100) 175.1 (16), 142.9 (17), 136.9 (28) Dehydroreticuline3.02 328.3 (100), 313.2 25 NA (C18 column) (83), 312.2 (80) 296.4 (6),284.2 (26), 252.1 (5) 190.2 (4), 162.4 (7)

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for preparing (R)-Reticuline or an (R)-Reticuline precursor, the method comprising: (a) introducing into a non-plant cell a chimeric nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide haying an amino acid sequence that corresponds to at least 85% of the sequence identity to the polypeptide encoded by SEQ ID NO: 322, comprising as operably linked components: (i) a first nucleic acid sequence encoding CYP450; (ii) a second nucleic acid sequence encoding AKR; and (iii) one or more nucleic acid sequence capable of controlling expression in a host cell; (b) growing the host cell to produce CYP450, AKR, and (R)-Reticuline or the (R)-Reticuline precursor.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the non-plant cell is a yeast cell.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the non-plant cell is a bacteria cell.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the chimeric nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence that corresponds to at least 90% of the sequence identity to the polypeptide encoded by SEQ ID NO:
 322. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the chimeric nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence that corresponds to at least 95% of the sequence identity to the polypeptide encoded by SEQ ID NO:
 322. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the host cell produces (S)-Reticuline.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the host cell produces (R)-Reticuline.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the host cell produces at least one compound selected from the group consisting of (S)-Coclaurine, (S)-N-Methylcoclaurine, (S)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine, (R)-N-Methylcoclaurine, (R)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine, and (S)-Reticuline.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the host cell produces at least one (R)-Reticuline precursor selected from the group consisting of (R)-N-Methylcoclaurine or (R)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein growing the host cell comprises: culturing the host cell in a cellular growth medium, wherein the cellular growth medium comprises at least one of (S)-Norcoclaurine, (S)--N-Methylnorcoclaurine, (S)-Norlaudanosaline, (S)--N-Methylnorlaudanosaline, (S)-Coclaurine, (S)-N-Methylcoclaurine, (S)-3′-Hydroxycoclaurine, (S)-3′-Hydroxy-N-methylcoclaurine, (S)-Higenamine, (S)--N -Methylhigenamine, (S)-Laudanosoline, (S)-Norreticuline, and (S)-Orientaline. 